CTET Paper II — 7 July 2019 (Set W) — Mathematics and Science

1. Read the following description and identify the stage of moral reasoning of Kohlberg. Description : Right action is defined by self-chosen ethical principles of conscience that are valid for all humanity, regardless of law and social agreement.

• (a) The instrumental purpose orientation
• (b) The social - contract orientation
• (c) The social - order maintaining orientation
• (d) The universal ethical principle orientation

2. One of the major accomplishments of concrete operational stage is

• (a) Animistic thinking
• (b) Ability to conserve
• (c) Hypothetic - deductive reasoning
• (d) Secondary circular reactions

3. Constructivists such as Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky view learning as

• (a) acquisition of skills
• (b) conditioning of responses
• (c) passive repetitive process
• (d) process of meaning-making by active engagement

4. Selecting and presenting stories and clippings from newspaper that portray both men and women in nontraditional roles is an effective strategy to

• (a) promote gender bias
• (b) promote gender constancy
• (c) encourage stereotypical gender roles
• (d) counter gender stereotypes

5. Which of the following play an important role in a child’s socialization ? (i) Media (ii) School (iii) Family (iv) Neighbourhood

• (a) (iii), (i)
• (b) (ii), (iii)
• (c) (i), (iii), (iv)
• (d) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)

6. As per Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence, how would the intelligence of a person with the following characteristics be categorized ? Characteristics : “Ability to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations and, intentions of others.”

• (a) Naturalistic
• (b) Intrapersonal
• (c) Interpersonal
• (d) Therapeutic

7. Which of the following should be the reasons for assessment of children ? (i) To separate and label children into ‘non-achievers’, ‘low-achievers’, ‘average’ and ‘high-achievers’. (ii) To improve teaching-learning processes in the classroom. (iii) To find out what changes and progress in learning that takes place in the child over a period of time. (iv) To discuss the capabilities, potential, strengths and challenging areas of the child with the parents.

• (a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
• (b) (i), (ii), (iii)
• (c) (ii), (iii), (iv)
• (d) (ii), (iv)

8. Which of the following is central to the concept of progressive education ?

• (a) Textbook centric learning
• (b) Belief in the capability and potential of every child
• (c) Standard instruction and assessment
• (d) Extrinsic motivation and uniform assessment parameters

9. To understand individual differences in development it is important

• (a) to look at the inherited characteristics that give each person a special start in life.
• (b) to look at the environmental factors that affect individuals.
• (c) to consider maturation of the body and the brain.
• (d) to consider both inherited characteristics as well as environmental factors and their interplay.

10. Which of the following is not a principle of development ?

• (a) Individuals develop at different rates.
• (b) Development is relatively orderly.
• (c) Development takes place gradually over a period of time.
• (d) Exact course and nature of development is determined at the time of birth itself.

11. Several research studies show that teachers have more overall interaction with boys than girls. What is the correct explanation for this ?

• (a) Boys have much more academic capabilities than girls.
• (b) Boys need more attention than girls.
• (c) This is an example of gender bias in teaching.
• (d) Boys are easier to manage than girls in the classroom.

12. The ability to come up with original and divergent solutions to a problem is a primary characteristic of

• (a) Egocentric children
• (b) Impaired children
• (c) Creative children
• (d) Children with learning disability

13. What instructional adaptations should a teacher make while working with students who are ‘Visually Challenged’ ?

• (a) Speak clearly and use a lot of touch and feel materials.
• (b) Use a variety of visual presentations.
• (c) Orient herself so that the students can watch her closely.
• (d) Focus on a variety of written tasks especially worksheets.

14. Co-operative learning and peer-tutoring _________ in an inclusive classroom.

• (a) should be actively promoted
• (b) should be actively discouraged
• (c) should be occasionally used
• (d) should not be used

15. Which of the following is most important in an inclusive classroom ?

• (a) Uniform instruction
• (b) Standardized testing
• (c) Promoting competitive learning
• (d) Individualized education plan

16. Which of the following is a correctly matched pair of learners and their primary characteristics ?

• (a) Hearing impaired learners – Cannot comprehend visual information
• (b) ‘Dyslexic’ learners – Lack reading and writing fluency
• (c) Creative learners – Hyperactive; slow in completing work
• (d) Attention deficit learners – High motivation; can sustain attention for long periods of time.

17. Which of the following does not result in meaningful facilitation of learning ?

• (a) Connecting new knowledge to pre-existing knowledge
• (b) Promoting repetition and recall
• (c) Use of examples and non-examples
• (d) Encouraging multiple ways of looking at a problem

18. Which of the following would not be consistent with a constructivist environment ?

• (a) Students are given frequent opportunities to engage in complex, meaningful, problem-based activities.
• (b) Students work collaboratively and are given support to engage in task-oriented dialogue with each other.
• (c) Teachers elicit students’ ideas and experiences in relationship to key topics and plant teaching-learning to elaborate or restructure their current knowledge.
• (d) Teachers employ specific end of the term assessment strategies and give feedback on products rather than processes.

19. A teacher should encourage students to set _______________ rather than ______________.

• (a) learning goals; performance goals
• (b) performance goals; learning goals
• (c) failure avoiding goals; marks seeking goals
• (d) marks seeking goals; failure avoiding goals

20. Which of the following are examples of effective learning strategies ? (i) Setting goals and time tables (ii) Making organizational charts and concept maps (iii) Thinking of examples and non-examples (iv) Explaining to a peer (v) Self-questioning

• (a) (i), (ii), (iii)
• (b) (i), (iv), (v)
• (c) (i), (ii), (iii), (v)
• (d) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)

21. Which of these is an example of extrinsic motivation ?

• (a) “I enjoy doing my homework because it is so much fun.”
• (b) “I learn so much when I do my homework.”
• (c) “Doing homework makes me understand my concepts better.”
• (d) “I complete my homework because the teacher gives us marks for each assignment.”

22. In a primary classroom a teacher should

• (a) give only examples
• (b) give only non-examples
• (c) give both examples and non-examples
• (d) not give any examples and non-examples

23. Which of the following strategies would promote meaning-making in children ?

• (a) Exploration and discussion
• (b) Transmission of information
• (c) Using punitive measures
• (d) Uniform and standardized testing

24. Children’s errors and misconceptions –

• (a) are a significant step in the teaching-learning process.
• (b) are a hindrance and obstacle to the teaching-learning process.
• (c) should be ignored in the teaching-learning process.
• (d) signify that children’s capabilities are far inferior than that of adults.

25. In the constructivist frame child is viewed as

• (a) ‘miniature adult’ who is less than adult in all aspects such as size, cognition, emotions.
• (b) ‘tabula rasa’ or ‘blank slate’ whose life is shaped entirely by experience.
• (c) a ‘passive being’ who can be shaped and molded into any form through conditioning.
• (d) a ‘problem solver’ and a ‘scientific investigator’.

26. A teacher’s role while using co-operative learning in her class –

• (a) is to be a silent spectator and let children do what they want.
• (b) is to leave the class and let children work on their own.
• (c) is to be supportive and monitor each group.
• (d) is to support the group which has the ‘bright’ and ‘talented’ children.

27. Which of the following statements denotes the relationship between development and learning correctly ?

• (a) Development and learning are not related.
• (b) Learning takes place irrespective of development.
• (c) Rate of learning far exceeds the rate of development.
• (d) Development and learning are inter-related and inter-dependent.

28. According to Piaget, specific psychological structures (organized ways of making sense of experience) are called

• (a) mental tools
• (b) schemes
• (c) images
• (d) mental maps

29. “With an appropriate question / suggestion, the child’s understanding can be extended far beyond the point which she could have reached alone.” Which construct does the above statement highlight ?

• (a) Zone of proximal development
• (b) Equilibration
• (c) Conservation
• (d) Intelligence

30. According to Lev Vygotsky, basic mental capacities are transformed into higher cognitive processes primarily through

• (a) rewards and punishment
• (b) social interaction
• (c) stimulus-response association
• (d) adaptation and organization IMPORTANT :

34. Which of the following is not a Pythagorean triplet ?

• (a) 7, 24, 25
• (b) 8, 15, 17
• (c) 11, 60, 63
• (d) 13, 84, 85

38. One side of a triangle is 5 cm and the other side is 10 cm and its perimeter is P cm, where P is an integer. The least and the greatest possible values of P are respectively

• (a) 19 and 29
• (b) 20 and 28
• (c) 21 and 29
• (d) 22 and 27

39. Let x be the median of the data 13, 8, 15, 14, 17, 9, 14, 16, 13, 17, 14, 15, 16, 15, 14. If 8 is replaced by 18, then the median of the data is y. What is the sum of the values of x and y ?

• (a) 27
• (b) 28
• (c) 29
• (d) 30

40. A bag contains 3 white, 2 blue and 5 red balls. One ball is drawn at random from the bag. What is the probability that the ball drawn is not red ? 4

• (a) 5 3
• (b) 10 1
• (c) 5 1
• (d) 2

45. Which one of the following statements is true ?

• (a) A regular hexagon has only 4 lines of symmetry.
• (b) A regular polygon of 10 sides has 10 lines of symmetry.
• (c) A circle has no line of symmetry.
• (d) An angle has two lines of symmetry.

48. Which of the following statements is correct regarding children coming to school from rural areas in the context of Mathematics ?

• (a) They need not learn formal mathematics as it is of no use to them.
• (b) They may have rich oral mathematical traditions and knowledge.
• (c) They do not know any mathematics.
• (d) They have poor communication skills in mathematics.

49. Read the following statements : A. Axioms are propositions which are assumed. B. Axioms are special theorems. C. Axioms are definitions. D. Axioms, when proved becomes theorems. Which of the following statement(s) is correct ?

• (a) A and C
• (b) A and D
• (c) Only B
• (d) Only A

50. Which of the following statements does not reflect contemporary view of students errors in mathematics ?

• (a) They should be overlooked.
• (b) They are a part of learning.
• (c) They are a rich source of information.
• (d) They can guide the teacher in planning her classes.

51. Which of the following statement(s) regarding Mathematics is true ? A. Mathematics is a tool. B. Mathematics is a form of art. C. Mathematics is a language.

• (a) A & B
• (b) B & C
• (c) only A
• (d) A, B & C

52. To prove that 2 is an irrational number, a teacher begins by assuming that it is a rational number and then proceeds to show how this assumption is not feasible. This is an example of proof by

• (a) Induction
• (b) Deduction
• (c) Contradiction
• (d) Verification

53. Which of the following statements reflects a desirable assessment practice in the context of mathematics learning ?

• (a) Only paper-pencil tasks are suited to assess students because they require precise answers.
• (b) Holding conversations and one to one discussion with children can also be helpful in assessing them.
• (c) Assessment should be product oriented and focus on the right answer of the child.
• (d) Incorrect answers of children should largely be ignored because we need to focus on children’s strengths.

54. Which of the following statements is true of learning mathematics ?

• (a) Everyone can learn and succeed in mathematics.
• (b) Girls need extra attention because they are weaker in mathematics.
• (c) Mathematics is a specialized subject meant for a select few.
• (d) Informal algorithms are inferior to formal mathematics.

56. A student is not able to solve those word problems which involve transposition in algebra. The best remedial strategy is to

• (a) give lot of practise questions on transposition of numbers.
• (b) give lot of practise questions of word problems in another language.
• (c) explain him/her word problem in simple language.
• (d) explain concept of equality using alternate method.

57. Contemporary understanding of Mathematics Pedagogy encourages teachers to do all of the following, except :

• (a) Encourage the ability to approximate solutions.
• (b) Introduce computation of problems before development of conceptual understanding.
• (c) Create opportunities for students to guess-and-verify the solutions to problems.
• (d) Develop the skill of systematic reasoning in students.

60. Which one of the following statements is not true for integers ?

• (a) Multiplication is associative.
• (b) Division is commutative.
• (c) 1 is the multiplicative identity.
• (d) Subtraction is not commutative.

62. Which of the following sets contains only the units of measuring distance ?

• (a) metre, light year, hertz
• (b) cubit, year, light year
• (c) cubit, metre, light year
• (d) metre, hertz, cubit

63. Sameer rolls his marble on three different surfaces spread out on floor – taut cellophane sheet, carpet and newspaper. The force of friction acting on the marble in the increasing order is

• (a) Newspaper, Cellophane sheet, Carpet
• (b) Newspaper, Carpet, Cellophane sheet
• (c) Cellophane sheet, Newspaper, Carpet
• (d) Cellophane sheet, Carpet, Newspaper

64. An object is moving linearly with a uniform velocity. If time is represented along X-axis then which of the following statements is correct ?

• (a) The distance-time graph of the motion will be a straight line parallel to X-axis.
• (b) The velocity-time graph of the motion will be a straight line parallel to Y-axis.
• (c) The distance-time graph of the motion will be a straight line parallel to Y-axis.
• (d) The velocity-time graph of the motion will be a straight line parallel to X-axis.

65. Which of the following is not a byproduct of petroleum ?

• (a) Paraffin wax
• (b) Coke
• (c) Bitumen
• (d) Lubricating oil

67. Which of the following organisms can prepare their own food by Photosynthesis ?

• (a) Algae
• (b) Fungi
• (c) Rhizobium
• (d) Virus

68. Which of the following features help polar bears adapt in extreme cold conditions ?

• (a) white fur, flat feet, fat under skin
• (b) white fur, long curved sharp claws, fat under skin
• (c) white fur, flat feet, layers of fur
• (d) strong smell, flat feet, layers of fur

69. Which of the following nutrients are present in milk ?

• (a) Protein, Calcium, Vitamin D
• (b) Protein, Vitamin C, Vitamin A
• (c) Carbohydrates, Vitamin C, Iron
• (d) Protein, Iron, Vitamin D

70. The non-metal used in the purple coloured solution applied on wounds as antiseptic is

• (a) Chlorine
• (b) Iodine
• (c) Bromine
• (d) Sulphur

71. Which of the following statements regarding ‘Air’ is incorrect ?

• (a) Air has weight.
• (b) Air is not present in soil.
• (c) Air plays important role in water cycle.
• (d) Air occupies space.

72. Which of the following represents correct matching of the organs of digestive system in Column A with the function in Column B ? Column A Column B a. Liver i. where protein digestion starts b. Stomach ii. where bile juice is stored c. Gall iii. releases bladder digestive juice into small intestine d. Pancreas iv. largest gland a b c d

• (a) i ii iv iii
• (b) iv i ii iii
• (c) i iii ii iv
• (d) iii iv ii i

73. Which of the following statement about cells is true ?

• (a) All cells are round in shape.
• (b) Cells of a tissue have similar structure.
• (c) Size of cells is same in a well organized organism.
• (d) All the cells have nucleus.

74. Which of the following are correctly matched with their mode of reproduction ? A B a. Yeast i. vegetative propagation b. Potato ii. spore formation c. Algae iii. fragmentation d. Fungi iv. budding a b c d

• (a) iv i iii ii
• (b) i iii ii iv
• (c) ii iv iii i
• (d) iii ii iv i

75. Which of the following pollutants are responsible for depletion of ozone layer ?

• (a) Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
• (b) Chlorofluoro carbons
• (c) Acid rain
• (d) Methane and carbon dioxide

76. Which of the following set represents communicable diseases ?

• (a) Anaemia, Scurvy, Diarrhoea, Cholera
• (b) Typhoid, Malaria, Anaemia, Swine flu
• (c) Typhoid, Swine flu, Malaria, Polio
• (d) Diabetes, Typhoid, Malaria, Anaemia

77. Which one of the following is not true of the nature of science ? A. Science is always tentative. B. Science promotes scepticism. C. Science is a process of constructing knowledge. D. Science is static in nature.

• (a) D
• (b) B
• (c) C
• (d) A

78. Which of the following is/are developed by Science ? A. Equity B. Scientific attitude C. Scientific temper D. Static mind set

• (a) A and D
• (b) B, C and D
• (c) A, B and C
• (d) C and D

79. The role of a science teacher should be to _________

• (a) provide rich variety of learning experiences to learners.
• (b) provide product based teaching-learning environment to learners.
• (c) guide learners to practice the memorization of the creative ideas.
• (d) encourage all learners to frame questions of high cognitive abilities.

80. As per NCF-2005, good science education should be A. True to the learner B. True to the environment of the learner C. True to the teacher D. True to science

• (a) A, B and D
• (b) B and C only
• (c) A, B and C
• (d) D only

81. “Conducting a survey on the awareness of people about sources of air pollution in learners localities.” Which of the following cognitive process will be most associated with the above learning objective having action verb conducting ?

• (a) Remembering
• (b) Understanding
• (c) Creating
• (d) Applying

82. Which of the following strategy can be the most appropriate for involving learners in the teaching learning of science ?

• (a) Reading a science book
• (b) Clarifying the hard spots of learners
• (c) Working on engaging the learners first
• (d) Encouraging learners to do group assessment

83. By which of the following strategy meaningful clarification on the concept of reflection of light can be given ?

• (a) Animated video on the concept.
• (b) Chart showing the reflection of light.
• (c) Observing reflection of light on white paper screen by the learners and drawing conclusions.
• (d) Asking closed ended questions related to the concept.

84. Why are field visits important in science ?

• (a) It provides hands on experiences to the learners.
• (b) It is easy to conduct.
• (c) It collects the information of science.
• (d) It develops habit of hardwork among learners.

85. Which of the following tool is for learner centered assessment ? A. Portfolio B. Concept mapping C. Paper-pencil test D. Journal writing

• (a) C only
• (b) A, B and D
• (c) A and C only
• (d) B, C and D

86. Assessment as learning in Science means _________.

• (a) Formative assessment
• (b) Summative assessment
• (c) Self assessment
• (d) Term assessment

87. Amrita is trying to set-up an electric circuit. She runs short of connecting wires. Which of the following materials can she use to complete the circuit ?

• (a) thick thread
• (b) steel wire
• (c) glass rod
• (d) rubber pipe

88. Identify the correct statement.

• (a) A concave mirror always forms an erect image.
• (b) A concave mirror forms an erect as well as inverted image.
• (c) A convex mirror always forms an inverted image.
• (d) A convex mirror forms erect as well as inverted image.

89. Which of the following acids is found in ant’s sting ?

• (a) Ascorbic acid
• (b) Formic acid
• (c) Oxalic acid
• (d) Acetic acid

106. A teacher along with her learners writes the names of objects in the classroom (like door, black board, windows etc) in their mother tongue and in English on pieces of paper and pastes them on the objects for learners to notice the words. What is the teacher trying to do ?

• (a) The teacher wants her learners to write well.
• (b) The teacher is creating a (print) language rich environment in the classroom.
• (c) The teacher is trying to teach letters of alphabet.
• (d) The teacher is creating a situation for the students to learn the spelling of the words.

107. This is assumed to be a major difference between language acquisition and learning.

• (a) Language acquisition is natural and language learning is deliberate/instructed.
• (b) Language acquisition happens at an early stage while language learning takes place later.
• (c) Language acquisition always happens in mother tongue and language learning happens in the second language.
• (d) Language acquisition is meaning formation and language learning is making meaning.

109. Many minor and tribal languages are not available in school curriculum and the number of speakers is receding in those languages. What is this known as in socio educational linguistics ?

• (a) Language death
• (b) Language minority in education
• (c) Language endangerment
• (d) Language revival

110. A teacher asks her learners to find words and word chunks relating to different themes based on the reading lesson. Learners in groups have to make word charts of the same category. What is this strategy known as ?

• (a) Thematic language teaching
• (b) Word collocations
• (c) Communicative language teaching
• (d) A writing project

111. A student reads through an article in a newspaper to get the overall idea of the article. What is this (practice) known as ?

• (a) Scanning
• (b) Skimming
• (c) Top-down model
• (d) Bottom-up model

112. Sight words are developed

• (a) by seeing them on sight.
• (b) by teachers from text books.
• (c) by using words in meaningful contexts
• (d) by knowing meanings of difficult words.

114. ‘Comprehensible input’ as proposed by Krashen (1985) is

• (a) enabling learners to comprehend ideas.
• (b) exposing learners to language somewhat above their level.
• (c) exposing learners to language below their level so that they can comprehend.
• (d) enabling learners to read in many languages.

115. Extensive reading is

• (a) reading in detail every word and idea for deep understanding.
• (b) reading for facts.
• (c) reading to write.
• (d) reading for pleasure and overall understanding of the text.

116. A teacher keeps the students’ work of language use and uses it for assessing the learners’ achievement. What is this strategy for assessment known as ?

• (a) Portfolio assessment
• (b) Diagnostic test
• (c) CCE
• (d) Summative assessment

117. A teacher brought real life objects like a hammer, a screw driver and so on to her class. She asked her learners to describe the objects in five to seven sentences. What are the materials in language teaching known as ?

• (a) Teaching implements
• (b) Tools
• (c) Language input
• (d) Realia

118. Mother tongue based multilingualism advocates that

• (a) all learners learn in mother tongue only in primary school.
• (b) learners begin their schooling in mother tongue and move on to add many (at least two) languages in school.
• (c) learners begin with their state language and more on to English medium.
• (d) learners learn their mother tongue, Hindi and English from Class-I.

119. Which of the following statements are true of teaching of grammar ? A. Teaching of rules at the initial stage does not lend much to language learning. B. Rules of grammar are essential during the formative years of language learning. C. Grammar teaching should move from meaning to form. D. Grammar teaching should move from form to meaning.

• (a) Statements B and D are true.
• (b) Statements C and B are true.
• (c) Statements A and C are true.
• (d) Statements A and D are true.

120. A teacher draws the attention of learners to individual sounds, words and then sentences while teaching the listening skill. What approach to listening does the teacher adopt ?

• (a) Top-down approach
• (b) Elastic approach
• (c) Communicative approach
• (d) Bottom-up approach

136. Continuous Assessment focuses on

• (a) Formal assessment
• (b) Informal assessment
• (c) Informal and a combination of both formative and summative
• (d) Outcome and achievement based assessment

137. ‘Pre-reading’ activity in class is to

• (a) connect learner’s previous knowledge with what she learns in the reading text.
• (b) connect learners’ with one another.
• (c) enable learners to know about the story which they would read ahead.
• (d) All of these

138. Pedagogical Grammar is

• (a) grammar of pedagogy
• (b) grammar for teachers
• (c) grammar in context to connect grammar points with real life context
• (d) grammar with formal rules to be applied while writing

139. What are these words known as ? – the, of, and, a, to, that, it, with, but, they, she, he

• (a) Sight words
• (b) Form words
• (c) Use words
• (d) Unimportant words

140. A teacher gives a puzzle to her class- VIII students and asks them to solve it by speaking out how they solve it. What is this strategy known as ?

• (a) Speaking aloud
• (b) Think aloud protocol
• (c) Listening
• (d) Picture reading

141. Sanskrit in India today is a

• (a) Modern Indian language
• (b) Modern Indian language and a classical language
• (c) Religious language
• (d) Hindu language

142. A teacher of Class-VII asked her students to read a short story and come to the class. She asks them to discuss the major points of the story in groups and present them to the whole class. What is this reading known as ?

• (a) Intensive reading
• (b) Reading with a purpose
• (c) Reading for thinking
• (d) Extensive reading

143. English does not find its place as a _________.

• (a) first language in the school curriculum
• (b) second language in the school curriculum
• (c) third language in the school curriculum
• (d) medium of instruction

144. Bottom-up processing in listening is to

• (a) decode messages moving from sounds to words, phrases, clauses and other grammatical elements to sentences.
• (b) decode the overall messages of the discourse and move down the micro level units.
• (c) encode all the sounds from speaker to listener.
• (d) use multiple ways to decode the messages.

145. What is the following strategy known as in reading ? The text is read more slowly and in detail to get the gist or overall sense of the text.

• (a) Scanning
• (b) Summarising
• (c) Skimming
• (d) Scaffolding

146. A teacher asks her learners of class-VII to refer to the textbook of History and find a theme which can be connected with English language text for writing an essay. What is this practice known as ?

• (a) Language and Social Science learning
• (b) Language across the curriculum
• (c) Language in learning
• (d) Language and history integrated learning

147. Multilingualism as a resource means

• (a) learning many languages in school.
• (b) using the languages of learners as a strategy in school.
• (c) teaching many languages.
• (d) promoting of languages through content learning.

149. A teacher divides her class into groups of five and allocates different themes to the groups. The groups have to collect information on the themes and write reports to be presented to the class. What is this activity known as ?

• (a) Assignment
• (b) Project work
• (c) Writing work
• (d) Research

150. Process approach to writing involves

• (a) Brainstorming, outlining, drafting revising, proof-reading and drafting the final writing.
• (b) Brainstorming, writing the first draft and final writing.
• (c) Outlining, revising and writing the final draft.
• (d) Writing the first draft, revising and developing the final draft.